It is hard to imagine Indian cooking without heat, yet the chilli itself is a later arrival. Native to the Americas, chilli peppers reached India through Portuguese trade routes in the 16th century during the Columbian Exchange. Before their arrival, Indian kitchens relied on black pepper, long pepper, ginger, and mustard for heat. But chillies adapted quickly to Indian climates and tastes, eventually transforming regional cuisines so completely that today they feel inseparable from the country’s food identity.